Neoplatonism (sometimes written as Neo-Platonism) became one of the dominant philosophies throughout the Roman Empire. Neoplatonism’s compatibility with the monotheistic religions of the day helped it maintain its dominance as classical paganism waned.

Aristotle (c.384-322 B.C.E.) was one of the greatest minds of the Classical – or any – age. His ideas have influenced West and East for over two thousand years. It is only fairly recently that his influence has faded in disciplines he practically invented: deductive logic, biology, physics, scientific method – the list could be extended. However, although efforts will be rewarded, the study of Aristotle is not for the faint of heart. Great patience, mental agility, and humility are required. For every sage that has sung Aristotle’s praises, I’m sure a dozen students would hurl insults and heap scorn, and if said sage felt the backlash, then all the better. Even so there is no doubt that any study of philosophy is incomplete without Aristotle.

The prospective will certainly benefit from an introduction to Aristotle – and there are many of excellent quality. What follows is a light introduction that focuses on Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics. I think Aristotle still has a great deal to offer in this regard.

Beginning Aristotle

What follows is a brief introduction to Plato’s Republic intended for the undergraduate or beginner. This introduction should in no way be understood as a replacement for reading the text – or even as a complete introduction to a very complex work. Actually reading Plato will repay the effort at least a hundredfold. However since Plato’s time is very far removed from our own a little help might be in order. There are hundreds of excellent scholarly works on Plato available for the novice. One that I have used in class and really admire is Socrates Against Athens: Philosophy on Trial by James Colaiaco. Although the focus is on Plato’s Apology the reader gets an excellent view of Socrates and the particular environment out of which Plato’s philosophy developed.

Plato-Republic

Ludwig Wittgenstein was one of the Twentieth Century’s most influential philosophers. However reading his work can be quite difficult, and sorting out the many controversies regarding its interpretation can be mind-boggling. Much of the difficulty stems from Wittgenstein’s unique approach to philosophy. Whatever might be said about his methods and the reasons for them, they are certainly non-traditional.  A guidebook can be a help and there are several that are first rate. Ray Monk’s biography Ludwig Wittgenstein: The Duty of Genius is a great place to start. Janik and Toulmin’s Wittgenstein’s Vienna is also recommended, as is H. O Mounce’s Wittgenstein’s Tractatus: An Introduction. Finally I would also like to plug my own work: Reading Wittgenstein’s Philosophical Investigations: A Beginners Guide. In the end there is no substitute for reading the text itself.

Here I’ve uploaded a small intro to Wittgenstein’s work that should get the undergraduate started.

Wittgenstein_Review 

Immanuel Kant(1724-1804) is without question one of the all-time greats in philosophy. The impact of his thought is still being felt, particularly in the area of ethics. Unfortunately to accompany his startling innovations, Kant introduced a new philosophical vocabulary. Equally unfortunate is Kant’s somewhat turgid prose style – all of which makes reading Kant very slow going. Perhaps in recognition of the difficulty for the reader Kant eases us into the depths of his moral philosophy with his Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785). Kant intended for this work to focus on establishing the fundamental principle of morality. It is not, strictly speaking, an introduction to his moral philosophy – but may serve as such. A further difficulty is that a familiarity with the ideas in Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason  is important in order to appreciate his moral philosophy. The following summary, suitable for undergraduates, attempts to supply that background while introducing the Groundwork. A thorough introduction to Kant is beyond the scope of this review. As always tackling the primary sources is highly recommended.

Kant’s Ethics

David Hume (1711-1776) occupies a unique place in modern thought. His ideas continue to influence almost every aspect of philosophical endeavor: epistemology, psychology, identity, ethics, scientific method, to name a few. I am sure Kant would agree that the challenges presented by Hume cannot be easily met. The notes that follow are designed to help an undergraduate navigate Hume’s Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. However a full appreciation of Hume should certainly include a study of A Treatise of Human Nature and his writings on morality and religion.

Hume Review

John Locke’s (1632-1704) Second Treatise of Government was influential in popularizing the then radical Social Contract theory, particularly with the intelligentsia in the American Colonies. Given Jefferson’s high opinion of Locke (one of the three greatest thinkers ever – the others being Bacon and Newton) it is unsurprising that Locke’s ideas found there way in to the Declaration of Independence. Jefferson was not alone since Locke’s thinking on the construction and limits of government found their way into the the U.S. Constitution. What follows is a brief outline suitable for undergraduates of some of Locke’s ideas found in the Second Treatise of Government.

Locke Review

Rene Descartes (1596-1650) has earned the title the Father of Modern Philosophy, His Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy generated a new method of inquiry for the modern mind. His discovery of Analytic Geometry paved the way for Calculus. In many ways Descartes’ philosophy helped shape the world in which we live. What follows is a brief introduction the main themes of Descartes’ Meditations, suitable for undergraduates. As always it is hoped the student will proceed to the primary source for continued clarification.

Descartes Review 

What follows is a short summary – suitable for undergraduates – on Martin Luther and his place at the close of Christendom. Luther was aided in his call for reform by his great intellectual talent – his genius can hardly be denied, and the novel support of a Saxon aristocracy that was chafing under the taxation of Rome. Luther’s reformation became a revolution that decisively ended the political dominance of the Church in Western Europe and produced yet another schism in Christianity. Luther’s theological insistence on doing the good for the sake of the good alone arguably bore Enlightenment philosophical fruit in the form of Kant’s Categorical Imperative. But that is another story.

Luther review

The notes that follow are a brief introduction to major ethical ideas that flourished in China during the Medieval period in Western Europe. The relevant period in China was during the Song Dynasty(960-1279). It was roughly during this era (13th Century) that Europeans began making contact with China.  Such a comparison, therefore, might prove interesting. China at this time was far more advanced than Europe. But, perhaps surprisingly, the moral philosophy of each culture was focused on the idea of virtue – albeit from different perspectives.

Ethics in Classical China